Each IP class is equipped with its own default subnet mask which
bounds that IP class to have prefixed number of Networks and prefixed
number of Hosts per network. Classful IP addressing does not provide
any flexibility of having less number of Hosts per Network or more
Networks per IP Class.
CIDR or Classless Inter Domain Routing provides the
flexibility of borrowing bits of Host part of the IP address and using
them as Network in Network, called Subnet. By using subnetting, one
single Class A IP address can be used to have smaller sub-networks which
provides better network management capabilities.
Class A Subnets
In Class A, only the first octet is used as Network identifier and
rest of three octets are used to be assigned to Hosts (i.e. 16777214
Hosts per Network). To make more subnet in Class A, bits from Host part
are borrowed and the subnet mask is changed accordingly.
For example, if one MSB (Most Significant Bit) is borrowed from host
bits of second octet and added to Network address, it creates two
Subnets (21=2) with (223-2) 8388606 Hosts per Subnet.
The Subnet mask is changed accordingly to reflect subnetting. Given
below is a list of all possible combination of Class A subnets:
In case of subnetting too, the very first and last IP address of
every subnet is used for Subnet Number and Subnet Broadcast IP address
respectively. Because these two IP addresses cannot be assigned to
hosts, sub-netting cannot be implemented by using more than 30 bits as
Network Bits, which provides less than two hosts per subnet.
Class B Subnets
By default, using Classful Networking, 14 bits are used as Network bits providing (214) 16384 Networks and (216-2)
65534 Hosts. Class B IP Addresses can be subnetted the same way as
Class A addresses, by borrowing bits from Host bits. Below is given all
possible combination of Class B subnetting:
Class C Subnets
Class C IP addresses are normally assigned to a very small size
network because it can only have 254 hosts in a network. Given below is
a list of all possible combination of subnetted Class B IP address:
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Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses
to be used efficiently in various situations as per the requirement of
hosts per network. Broadly, the IPv4 Addressing system is divided into
five classes of IP Addresses. All the five classes are identified by
the first octet of IP Address.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is responsible for assigning IP addresses.
The first octet referred here is the left most of all. The octets
numbered as follows depicting dotted decimal notation of IP Address:
The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by this formula:
When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased
because they cannot be assigned to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network
is network number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.
Class A Address
The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet ranges from 1 – 127, i.e.
Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x
only. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses.
The default subnet mask for Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that Class A addressing can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2).
Class A IP address format is thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class B Address
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set to 10, i.e.
Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.
Class B has 16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses.
Class B IP address format is: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class C Address
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is:
Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.
Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses.
Class C IP address format is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
Class D Address
Very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110, giving a range of:
Class D has IP address rage from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class
D is reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not destined
for a particular host, that is why there is no need to extract host
address from the IP address, and Class D does not have any subnet mask.
Class E Address
This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D
or Study. IP addresses in this class ranges from 240.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.254. Like Class D, this class too is not equipped with any
subnet mask.
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Follow this procedure to install Windows Server 2008:
1. Insert the appropriate Windows Server 2008 installation media into your DVD drive. If you don’t have an installation DVD for Windows Server 2008, you can download one for free from Microsoft’s Windows 2008 Server Trial website.
2. Reboot the computer.
3. When prompted for an installation language and other regional options, make your selection and press Next.
4. Next, press Install Now to begin the installation process.
5. Product activation is now also identical with that found in Windows Vista. Enter your Product ID in the next window, and if you want to automatically activate Windows the moment the installation finishes, click Next.
If you do not have the Product ID available right now, you can leave
the box empty, and click Next. You will need to provide the Product ID
later, after the server installation is over. Press No.
6. Because you did not provide the correct ID, the installation
process cannot determine what kind of Windows Server 2008 license you
own, and therefore you will be prompted to select your correct version in the next screen, assuming you are telling the truth and will provide the correct ID to prove your selection later on.
7. If you did provide the right Product ID, select the Full version of the right Windows version you’re prompted, and click Next.
8. Read and accept the license terms by clicking to select the checkbox and pressing Next.
9. In the “Which type of installation do you want?” window, click the only available option – Custom (Advanced).
10. In the “Where do you want to install Windows?”, if you’re installing the server on a regular IDE hard disk, click to select the first disk, usually Disk 0, and click Next.
If you’re installing on a hard disk that’s connected to a SCSI
controller, click Load Driver and insert the media provided by the
controller’s manufacturer.
If you’re installing in a Virtual Machine environment, make sure you read the “Installing the Virtual SCSI Controller Driver for Virtual Server 2005 on Windows Server 2008”
If you must, you can also click Drive Options and manually create a partition on the destination hard disk.
11. The installation now begins, and you can go and have lunch.
Copying the setup files from the DVD to the hard drive only takes about
one minute. However, extracting and uncompressing the files takes a good
deal longer. After 20 minutes, the operating system is installed. The
exact time it takes to install server core depends upon your hardware
specifications. Faster disks will perform much faster installs… Windows
Server 2008 takes up approximately 10 GB of hard drive space.
The installation process will reboot your computer, so, if in step
#10 you inserted a floppy disk (either real or virtual), make sure you
remove it before going to lunch, as you’ll find the server hanged
without the ability to boot (you can bypass this by configuring the
server to boot from a CD/DVD and then from the hard disk in the booting
order on the server’s BIOS)
12. Then the server reboots you’ll be prompted with the new Windows Server 2008 type of login screen. Press CTRL+ALT+DEL to log in.
13. Click on Other User.
14. The default Administrator is blank, so just type Administrator and press Enter.
15. You will be prompted to change the user’s password. You have no choice but to press Ok.
16. In the password changing dialog box, leave the default password blank
(duh, read step #15…), and enter a new, complex,
at-least-7-characters-long new password twice. A password like
“topsecret” is not valid (it’s not complex), but one like “T0pSecreT!”
sure is. Make sure you remember it.
17. Someone thought it would be cool to nag you once more, so now
you’ll be prompted to accept the fact that the password had been
changed. Press Ok.
18. Finally, the desktop appears and that’s it, you’re logged on and
can begin working. You will be greeted by an assistant for the initial server configuration, and after performing some initial configuration tasks, you will be able to start working.
Next, for the initial configuration tasks please follow my other Windows Server 2008 articles found on the Related Windows Server 2008 Articles section below.
For Official Microsoft information on Windows Server 2008, see the Windows Server 2008 homepage.
Windows on a Mac? This week's entry deals with creating UFDs that
allow you to install many other operating systems with the help of a
utility called Rufus. But before diving into that, I have a question of
my own.
Why would you install any OS—besides OS X—on an Apple computer?
The
answer to that is quite simply "because you can." Apple hardware is
similar to its PC counterparts in many ways except one: PCs can't
natively run OS X without any software hacks involved. Macs, on the
other hand, have the ability to run Windows and countless Linux
distributions alongside OS X or in place of it. Apple hardware supports
these operating systems natively, making Macs a versatile choice for
production equipment. Simply put, one machine can handle many different
uses, as opposed to purchasing dedicated equipment for each supported OS
type.
With that out of the way, let's look at the requirements for Rufus:
Apple (or PC) running Windows XP or later (preferably Windows 7+)
Now, let's create our first bootable UFD using Rufus, shall we? Follow these steps:
Rufus requires an account with admin
access in order to make the necessary changes to hardware. After
authenticating, insert the USB flash drive and launch Rufus. It will
detect the drive almost immediately. Since Rufus can handle various
partition schemes and file structures, ensure that the correct settings
are set that match the UFD you're going to build (Figure A). Figure A
Administrator
Click
the optical drive button next to the Create a bootable disk using
checkbox, and you'll be prompted to search for the ISO image to use (Figure B). Figure B
Administrator
When
using ISO images, Rufus will automatically modify the settings to best
match it. Once everything is set correctly, click the Start button to
begin the process. You'll be prompted with a warning that all data on
the UFD will be destroyed. Click OK to proceed with the creation process
(Figure C). Figure C
Administrator
Depending
on the ISO image size, the process may take several minutes to
complete. For the log readout of each step in the process, click the Log
button to open a side window and save the output details (Figure D). Figure D
Administrator
The
longest part of the entire process is the file copy portion. This is
typically the last step and varies depending on file size/number of
files to copy (Figure E). Figure E
Administrator
When complete, double-check the external drive to verify the files were copied over (Figure F). Figure F
Administrator
With
the process completed, simply eject the UFD, insert it into the device
you wish to install the OS on, and boot as you normally would. The days
of carrying multiple CD/DVDs with you and dealing with lagging installs
are drawing to a close with the ubiquitous use of USB drives—and the
storage capacity can't be beat.
There are some links on the site
for some helpful tutorials on creating certain types of UFDs, and
there's multiple localization support for a variety of languages
worldwide.
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Are you installing Windows 7? You don't need to be a professional
or refer to a confusing manual in order to do so. Just follow this
guide, and you'll have Windows 7 installed on that computer in no time!
Installing Using a Disc
Clean Install
A clean install is intended for users who want to
freshly install Windows on their computer (by deleting all of the data
on the hard disk and then installing Windows) or computers that do not
have an operating system yet.
1
Enter your computer's BIOS. Turn off the computer
that you want to install Windows on then turn it back on. When the BIOS
screen appears or you are prompted to do so, press Del, Esc, F2, F10, or F9 (depending on your computer’s motherboard) to enter the system BIOS. The key to enter the BIOS is usually shown on the screen.
2
Find your BIOS's boot options menu. The boot options
menu of your BIOS may vary in location or name from the illustration,
but you may eventually find it if you search around.
If you can't find the boot options menu, search the name of your BIOS (most likely located in the BIOS menu) online for help.
3
Select the CD-ROM drive as the first boot device of your computer.
Although this method may vary among computers, the boot options menu
is typically a menu of movable device names where you should set your
CD-ROM drive as the first boot device. It can also be a list of devices
that you can set the order of their boot on. Consult a manual or the
internet for help if you're stuck.
4
Save the changes of the settings. Press the button indicated on the screen or select the save option from the BIOS menu to save your configuration.
5
Shut off your computer. Either turn off the computer
by choosing the shut-down option in your current operating system, or
hold the power button until the computer powers off.
6
Power on the PC and the insert the Windows 7 disc into your CD/DVD drive.
7
Start your computer from the disc. After you have
placed the disc into the disc drive, start your computer. When the
computer starts, press a key if you are asked if you would like to boot
from the disc by pressing any key. After you choose to start from the
disc, Windows Setup will begin loading.
If you are not asked to boot from the disc, you may have done something wrong. Retry the previous steps to solve the problem.
8
Choose your Windows Setup options. Once Windows Setup
loads, you'll be presented with a window. Select your preferred
language, keyboard type, and time/currency format, then click Next.
9
Click the Install Now button.
10
Accept the License Terms. Read over the Microsoft Software License Terms, check I accept the license terms, and click Next.
11
Select the Custom installation.
12
Decide on which hard drive and partition you want to install Windows on. A hard drive is a physical part of your computer that stores data, and partitions "divide" hard drives into separate parts.
If the hard drive has data on it, delete the data off of it, or format it.
Select the hard drive from the list of hard drives.
Click Drive options (advanced).
Click Format from Drive options.
If your computer doesn't have any partitions yet, create one to install Windows on it.
Select the hard drive from the list of hard drives.
Click Drive options (advanced).
Select New from Drive options.
Select the size, and click OK.
13
Install Windows on your preferred hard drive and partition. Once you've decided on where to install Windows, select it and click Next. Windows will begin installing.
Upgrade
An Upgrade installation upgrades an older version of Windows on your computer (E.G. Windows Vista to Windows 7.)
1
Start your computer normally into your current operating system.
2
Check to see if your computer is compatible with Windows 7. The Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor scans your computer to see if you can upgrade it to Windows 7. Download it here.
3
Prepare your computer to install Windows.
Scan your computer for malware. Malware can prevent Windows from installing correctly.
Disable or uninstall any antivirus software because they may interfere with the Windows installation.
Uninstall some unnecessary programs to speed up the upgrade. You can install them after Windows 7 has finished.
Update Windows with Windows Update.
Delete some unnecessary files to speed up the upgrade.
Back up your hard drive in case the installation fails and you lose your files. (optional).
4
Insert your Windows 7 installation disc into the computer at this point.
5
Start Windows Setup. After the disc has loaded, click
Start →Computer, double click the disc drive that Windows 7 Setup was
placed in, and double-click setup.exe on the disc. Allow Setup to start.
6
Click Install Now.
7
Decide whether to install updates for Windows Setup.
The updates are intended to fix known problems with Windows Setup and
installing updates makes your installation smoother and more stable. To
get updates, click Go Online to get the latest updates for installation (recommended). To skip updates, click Do not get the latest updates for installation.
8
Accept the License Terms. Read over the Microsoft Software License Terms, check I accept the license terms, and click Next.
9
Select the Upgrade installation.
Part 2
Installing Using a Flash Drive or External Drive
Installing Windows Setup to the Flash Drive or External Drive
You will need to extract the Windows Setup files to a drive before continuing any farther.
1
Plug a drive with a minimum of 4 gigabytes of memory into a computer.
2
Move any personal files off of the drive.
3
Download the Windows 7 Setup ISO. An ISO file is a disc image. Note: This download may take a while, depending on your internet speed.
If the link to the website does not work, click here to download a list of the links.
4
Download and install the Windows 7 USB/DVD Download Tool from this link.
5
Once the ISO has finished downloading, open the Windows 7 USB/DVD Download Tool.
6
Select the ISO. On the Step 1 of 4: Choose ISO file screen of the Windows 7 USB/DVD Download Tool, select the downloaded ISO file by clicking Browse, then click Next to continue.
7
On the Step 2 of 4:Choose media type screen, choose USB device.
8
On the Step 3 of 4:Insert USB device screen, choose the drive you want to extract the Setup files to, then click Begin copying.
If you receive an error that says Not Enough Free Space, click the Erase USB Device button, which will erase all of the files on the drive.
9
Once Windows 7 USB/DVD Download Tool has finished extracting the ISO to the flash drive, your drive is ready to install Windows.
You may delete the ISO file now, as it is no longer required.
Clean Installation
A clean install is intended for users who want to
freshly install Windows on their computer (by deleting all of the data
on the hard disk and then installing Windows) or computers that do not
have an operating system yet. (Note: Older computers may not be able to
perform a clean installation with the drive.)
1
Make sure the drive that Windows 7 Setup was extracted onto is plugged into the computer.
2
Enter your computer's BIOS. Turn off the computer
that you want to install Windows on then turn it back on. When the BIOS
screen appears or you are prompted to do so, press Del, Esc, F2, F10, or F9 (depending on your computer’s motherboard) to enter the system BIOS. The key to enter the BIOS is usually shown on the screen.
3
Find your BIOS's boot options menu. The boot options
menu of your BIOS may vary in location or name from the illustration,
but you may eventually find it if you search around.
If you can't find the boot options menu, search the name of your BIOS (most likely located in the BIOS menu) online for help.
4
Select the drive as the first boot device of your computer.
If your drive doesn't show up as a boot device, then your computer doesn't support it.
Although this method may vary among computers, the boot options menu
is typically a menu of movable device names where you should set your
drive as the first boot device. It can also be a list of devices that
you can set the order of their boot on individually. Consult a manual or
the internet for help if you're stuck.
5
Save the changes of the settings. Press the button indicated on the screen or select the save option from the BIOS menu to save your configuration.
6
Shut off your computer. Either turn off the computer
by choosing the shut-down option in your current operating system, or
hold the power button until the computer powers off.
7
Turn your computer back on. Your computer should enter Windows Setup.
If your computer asks you if you want to boot from a CD by pressing any key, boot from it. Windows Setup will load.
Important Information: If you receive a CD/DVD device driver missing error during Setup at any point, simply click Cancel
on the error message which will return you to the Welcome screen. Once
you reach the Welcome screen, un-plug the USB drive and plug in into
another USB port on your computer, then continue with the installation.
8
Choose your Windows Setup options. Once Windows Setup
loads, you'll be presented with a window. Select your preferred
language, keyboard type, and time/currency format, then click Next.
9
Click the Install Now button.
10
Accept the License Terms. Read over the Microsoft Software License Terms, check I accept the license terms, and click Next.
11
Select the Custom installation.
12
Decide on which hard drive and partition you want to install Windows on. A hard drive is a physical part of your computer that stores data, and partitions "divide" hard drives into separate parts.
If the hard drive has data on it, delete the data off of it, or format it.
Select the hard drive from the list of hard drives.
Click Drive options (advanced).
Click Format from Drive options.
If your computer doesn't have any partitions yet, create one to install Windows on it.
Select the hard drive from the list of hard drives.
Click Drive options (advanced).
Select New from Drive options.
Select the size, and click OK.
13
Install Windows on your preferred hard drive and partition. Once you've decided on where to install Windows, select it and click Next. Windows will begin installing.
Upgrade
An Upgrade installation upgrades an older version of Windows on your computer (E.G. Windows Vista) to Windows 7.
1
Check to see if your computer is compatible with Windows 7. The Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor scans your computer to see if you can upgrade it to Windows 7. Download it here.
2
Prepare your computer to install Windows.
Scan your computer for malware. Malware can prevent Windows from installing correctly.
Disable or uninstall any antivirus software because they may interfere with the Windows installation.
Uninstall some unnecessary programs to speed up the upgrade. You can install them after Windows 7 has finished.
Update Windows with Windows Update.
Delete some unnecessary files to speed up the upgrade.
Back up your hard drive in case the installation fails and you lose your files. (optional).
3
Make sure the drive that Windows Setup was extracted onto is plugged into your computer.
4
Start Windows Setup. Click Start →Computer, double click the USB drive that Windows 7 Setup was extracted to, and double-click setup.exe on the disc. Allow Setup to start.
5
Click Install Now.
6
Decide whether to install updates for Windows Setup.
The updates are intended to fix known problems with Windows Setup and
installing updates makes your installation smoother and more stable. To
get updates, click Go Online to get the latest updates for installation (recommended). To skip updates, click Do not get the latest updates for installation.
7
Accept the License Terms. Read over the Microsoft Software License Terms, check I accept the license terms, and click Next.
8
Select the Upgrade installation.
Part 3
Post-Installation
These steps carry off after you have finished installing Windows and your computer has started in Windows 7.
1
Type your username and computer's name and click Next.
2
Type your password and click Next. If you don't want a password, leave the text boxes blank and then click Next.
3
Enter your product key then click Next. Your
product key is located on the case of your Windows 7 disc if you
purchased the disc. To skip entering your product key, just click Next, but Windows will run on a 30-day trial, and you'll have to enter a key once the 30 day trial time is up.
4
Choose your Windows Update settings.
Use recommended settings automatically sets update and security settings recommended by Microsoft.
Install important updates only configures your computer only to install necessary updates.
Ask me later disables your security until you have made a decision.
5
Set your time and time zone.
6
Set your network type.
If the computer is connected to your own personal network, choose Home network.
If you are connected to the network at your workplace, choose Work network.
If you're connected to a public network from places such as restaurants and shops, choose Public network.
7
Your computer is now set up!
8
Once your computer is ready, format your USB drive back to its default settings (if you chose the Installing Using a Flash Drive or External Drive method).
You can format your USB drive back to its default settings and place
your files back onto it by right clicking your USB drive in
Start→Computer, clicking Format, clicking Restore Device Defaults in Format, then clicking Start, which permanently deletes any data off of the drive. After the drive has formatted, you can move your files back onto it.
9
Be sure to reinstall any software you uninstalled, install any device drivers, and re-enable your security software. Also, to improve your security, run Windows Update to install the latest security updates.
In case of subnetting too, the very first and last IP address of
every subnet is used for Subnet Number and Subnet Broadcast IP address
respectively. Because these two IP addresses cannot be assigned to
hosts, sub-netting cannot be implemented by using more than 30 bits as
Network Bits, which provides less than two hosts per subnet.
The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by this formula:
When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased
because they cannot be assigned to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network
is network number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.
Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x
only. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses.
Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.
Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.
Class D has IP address rage from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class
D is reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not destined
for a particular host, that is why there is no need to extract host
address from the IP address, and Class D does not have any subnet mask.
